馬爾薩斯(Thomas Robert Malthus)在《論人口原理,因爲它影響社會的未來進步》(An Essay on the Principle of Population, as it Affects the Future Improvement of Society)一書中提出,呈代數級數增加的食物供給,趕不上以幾何級數增長的人口,供需不平衡將無可避免地使部分人遭受被淘汰的悲慘命運。
早在1877年,德國植物生理學家弗蘭克(Albert Bernhard Frank)使用曾經用於描寫共同生活在一個社區的民衆的詞語「共生」(symbiosis),來描述地衣中真菌與藻類的互惠共生關係。1879年德國植物學家德巴利(Henrich Anton de Bary)概述了共生的三個標準:兩個不同物種;它們生活在一起;它們緊密接觸。¹⁴⁵
2017年《美國國家科學院院刊》(Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, PNAS)發表了一項研究,題目是「黑猩猩以犧牲自身個體的利益回報恩惠」(Chimpanzees return favors at a personal cost),用黑猩猩(Pan troglodytes)做了多次重複的實驗,給我們帶來很多啓發。¹⁶¹
1997年,英國胚胎學家理查德森(Michael K. Richardson)等科學家在《解剖與胚胎學期刊》(Anatomy and embryology)上發表文章,提出海克爾造假的證據。他們發現不同物種的胚胎差異如此之大,各有其獨特之處,不同物種的胚胎在發育過程中,並沒有一個外形高度近似的時期¹⁶⁴。
英國廣播公司(BBC)根據對當時在英國倫敦的自然歷史博物館(Natural History Museum, NHM)工作的克里斯‧斯金格(Chris Stringer)教授的採訪,2012年12月17日發表了新聞,標題爲「皮爾當人:騙子仍在被追捕」(Piltdown Man: A hoaxer still pursued)。
報導的一句話這樣寫的:「毫無疑問,這令人震驚。皮爾當人醜聞可以說是英國有史以來最大的科學欺詐案。」(It was a shocker, no doubt about it. The Piltdown Man scandal is arguably the greatest scientific fraud ever perpetrated in the UK.)¹⁶⁹
5.3「內布拉斯加人」原來是豬
1917年有人在美國內布拉斯加州蘇城(Sioux County, Nebraska)西部土丘裏發現了一顆牙齒。當時美國自然歷史博物館館長、古生物學家亨利‧奧斯本教授(Prof. Dr. Henry Fairfield Osborn, 1857—1935)極力推崇這個發現。1922年他把這顆牙齒宣稱爲內布拉斯加人(Nebraska Man),作爲人類進化的證據,被人們列爲科學要聞。¹⁷¹
然而,這個「原始人」後被證實來自於一種已滅絕的豬。
美國外科醫生、學者和植物學家喬治‧愛德華‧波斯特(George Edward Post, 1838—1909)1885年8月2日的一封信中,記錄了他與大英博物館(British Museum)的化石專家和地質學家羅伯特‧艾瑟瑞吉博士(Dr. Robert Etheridge, 1819—1903)的一段談話:
「我很想聽聽一位一流的科學家──也許擁有世界上最大的總結歸納機會,會對達爾文進化論持何種看法。」「他轉向我,用一種清晰、誠實的目光注視着我的眼睛,回答道:『在這座偉大的博物館裏,沒有一絲關於物種轉變的證據。進化論者的言論十分之九純粹是無稽之談,沒有觀察基礎,也完全沒有事實支持。人們採用一種理論,然後費盡心力拼湊所謂事實來支持它。……不存在化石人(fossil man)這樣的東西。如果你不跟隨他們,人們就會把你視爲傻瓜。但這個博物館充滿了證明他們觀點完全錯誤的證據。』」( He turned to me with a clear, honest look into my eyes, and replied: 「In all this great Museum there is not a particle of evidence of transmutation of species. Nine-tenths of the talk of Evolutionists is sheer nonsense, not founded on observation, and wholly unsupported by fact. Men adopt a theory and then strain their facts to support it. ……There is no such thing as a fossil man. Men are ready to regard you as a fool if you do not go with them in all their vagaries. But this Museum is full of proofs of the utter falsity of their views.」)¹⁷²
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