他还说,「我所做的不过是不断地劝说你们所有人──无论是老人还是年轻人,不要担心你们的身体和财产,而是首先且最重要的是关心灵魂的最大提升。」(For I do nothing but go about persuading you all, old and young alike, not to take thought for your persons and your properties, but first and chiefly to care about the greatest improvement of the soul.)⁸²⁵
苏格拉底主张通过理性的思考、自我反思来实现道德的提升,从而追求更高尚的道德境界。他说:「未经审视的人生是不值得活的。」(the life which is unexamined is not worth living.)⁸²⁶
苏格拉底和他的学生、古希腊著名学者柏拉图也一起提出「勇气、节制、智慧、正义」(courage, moderation, wisdom and justice)为四主德(The Cardinal Virtues)。⁸²⁷
美国的国家先贤纪念碑(National Monument to the Forefathers)位于麻萨诸塞州,是为了纪念五月花号的清教徒而建立的。碑的主基座上矗立著象征「信仰」的人物,她右手指向天空,左手握《圣经》。底部基座的四个扶壁分别坐著另外四个人物,象征清教徒建立美国的基本原则,其中之一就是道德。⁸²⁸
在儒家文化中,有「己所不欲,勿施于人」的道德原则⁸²⁹。犹太教也有「如果施加给你会引起你的痛苦,也不要施加给别人,这是全部的律法,其它的都是补充性的」(What is hateful to you, do not to your neighbor: that is the whole Torah; the rest is commentary)⁸³⁰。而基督教说,「你们愿意人怎样待你们,你们也要怎样待人」⁸³¹。
苏格兰著名人类学家、解剖学家亚瑟‧基思教授(Prof. Dr. Sir Arthur Keith, 1866—1955)对进化论的道德观所作的研究的结果是:「正如我们所见,从前和现在的所谓自然进化过程都是残酷、兽性、冷酷和没有怜悯的。」(as we have just seen, the ways of national evolution, both in the past and in the present, are cruel, brutal, ruthless, and without mercy.)⁸³⁶
达尔文在《人类的由来》(The Descent of Man)一书中将进化论应用于人类的道德分析。 他认为人类的道德行为与动物的利他行为没有本质区别、人类的道德良心也是进化而来的,并且不断演化;道德的演化是群体适应的结果。⁸³⁷
在他的自传中,弗洛伊德回忆道,「当时流行的达尔文主义说具有强大的吸引力,因为它为理解宇宙提供了非凡的推动力。」(Darwin’s doctrine, then in vogue, was a powerful attraction, since it promised to provide an extraordinary thrust to understanding the universe.)弗洛伊德非常崇拜达尔文,并梦想成为与他平起平坐的人。
后来,随著自然科学基因技术的发展,用基因包装的进化论以更极端的方式被纳入心理学范围。1975年,美国哈佛大学社会生物学家爱德华‧奥斯本‧威尔逊(Edward O. Wilson, 1929—2021)在《社会生物学》(Sociobiology)一书中,依据达尔文的进化论,创立了社会生物学,用生物特征的基因来解释人的所有社会行为,认为人的行为与低等动物的行为没有区别,都是被「自私的基因」所决定的,所有生命形式存在的根本原因是为了保持基因的永续。⁸⁴³
自古以来,法律一直是公平、正义的象征,法律存在的目的就是让人们获得公平正义。古罗马法典《查士丁尼法典》⁸⁵⁴(Code of Justinian)将法学定义为「法学是关于神事和人事的知识;是关于正义和非正义的科学」。⁸⁵⁵(Jurisprudence is the knowledge of things divine and human, the science of the just and the unjust.)
美国记者与作家约翰‧彼得‧科斯特(John Peter Koster, 1945—)曾写道,「列宁办公室里唯一的艺术作品是个庸俗的雕像:坐在一堆包括《物种起源》(Origin of Species)的书上的一只猿猴正在凝视著一个人类的骷髅头骨。当他在办公桌前工作、核准计划或签署执行死刑令时,这个标志著达尔文对人类评价的泥塑,就一直留在列宁的视线范围之内。那猿猴和头骨是其信仰的象征:达尔文主义相信人『只不过』是兽,世界是个丛林,个别人的性命『根本』无关痛痒。」(The only piece of art work in Lenin’s office was a kitsch statue of an ape sitting on a heap of books—including Origin of Species—and contemplating a human skull. This rather vulgar artifact, a comment in clay on Darwin’s view of man, remained in Lenin’s view as he worked at his desk, approving plans or signing death warrants as he deemed necessary. The ape and the skull were to Lenin what a gilded icon might have been to his father. The ape and the skull were a symbol of his faith, the Darwinian faith that man is a brute, the world is a jungle, and individual lives are irrelevant.)⁸⁶⁸
科斯特在书中继续写道:「列宁可能不是一个本能恶毒的人,尽管他确实下令采取许多恶毒的措施。也许猿和头骨是为了提醒他,在达尔文的世界里,人对人的残忍是不可避免的。在他努力通过『科学』手段实现『工人天堂』的过程中,他下令造成大量人员死亡。猿猴和头骨可能帮助他抑制了健康童年遗留下来的任何善良或人道的冲动。(Lenin was probably not an instinctively vicious man, though he certainly ordered a great many vicious measures. Perhaps the ape and the skull were invoked to remind him that, in the world according to Darwin, man’s brutality to man is inevitable. In his struggle to bring about the “worker’s paradise” through “scientific” means, he ordered a great many deaths. The ape and the skull may have helped him stifle whatever kindly or humane impulses were left over from a wholesome childhood.)
1958年,美国心理学家劳伦斯‧柯尔伯格(Lawrence Kohlberg, 1927—1987)提出了道德发展阶段(Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development)理论。该理论指出,处于道德发展高阶段的人会根据普世伦理原则和良心来判断法律或规则是否公平、是否符合正义。他们倾向于认为,只有在基于正义的前提下,法律才是有效的,所以不义的法律就不必服从。⁸⁷²
良心自由与公民不服从(Civil disobedience )一直是法治中的内容之一⁸⁷⁷。英国剑桥大学法学和公法教授特雷弗‧艾伦(Trevor R. S. Allan, 1955—)说,凭良心的异议是法治的一部分,鼓励异议,使得每个人对正义和公平之承诺与法律义务直接相关,对法律的忠诚必须使普通民众的道德良心参与其中⁸⁷⁸。
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