馬爾薩斯（Thomas Robert Malthus）在《論人口原理，因爲它影響社會的未來進步》（An Essay on the Principle of Population, as it Affects the Future Improvement of Society）一書中提出，呈代數級數增加的食物供給，趕不上以幾何級數增長的人口，供需不平衡將無可避免地使部分人遭受被淘汰的悲慘命運。
早在1877年，德國植物生理學家弗蘭克（Albert Bernhard Frank）使用曾經用於描寫共同生活在一個社區的民衆的詞語「共生」（symbiosis），來描述地衣中真菌與藻類的互惠共生關係。1879年德國植物學家德巴利（Henrich Anton de Bary）概述了共生的三個標準：兩個不同物種；它們生活在一起；它們緊密接觸。¹⁴⁵
2017年《美國國家科學院院刊》（Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, PNAS）發表了一項研究，題目是「黑猩猩以犧牲自身個體的利益回報恩惠」（Chimpanzees return favors at a personal cost），用黑猩猩（Pan troglodytes）做了多次重複的實驗，給我們帶來很多啓發。¹⁶¹
1997年，英國胚胎學家理查德森（Michael K. Richardson）等科學家在《解剖與胚胎學期刊》（Anatomy and embryology）上發表文章，提出海克爾造假的證據。他們發現不同物種的胚胎差異如此之大，各有其獨特之處，不同物種的胚胎在發育過程中，並沒有一個外形高度近似的時期¹⁶⁴。
英國廣播公司（BBC）根據對當時在英國倫敦的自然歷史博物館（Natural History Museum, NHM）工作的克里斯‧斯金格（Chris Stringer）教授的採訪，2012年12月17日發表了新聞，標題爲「皮爾當人：騙子仍在被追捕」（Piltdown Man: A hoaxer still pursued）。
報導的一句話這樣寫的：「毫無疑問，這令人震驚。皮爾當人醜聞可以說是英國有史以來最大的科學欺詐案。」（It was a shocker, no doubt about it. The Piltdown Man scandal is arguably the greatest scientific fraud ever perpetrated in the UK.）¹⁶⁹
5.3「內布拉斯加人」原來是豬
1917年有人在美國內布拉斯加州蘇城（Sioux County, Nebraska）西部土丘裏發現了一顆牙齒。當時美國自然歷史博物館館長、古生物學家亨利‧奧斯本教授（Prof. Dr. Henry Fairfield Osborn, 1857—1935）極力推崇這個發現。1922年他把這顆牙齒宣稱爲內布拉斯加人（Nebraska Man），作爲人類進化的證據，被人們列爲科學要聞。¹⁷¹
然而，這個「原始人」後被證實來自於一種已滅絕的豬。
美國外科醫生、學者和植物學家喬治‧愛德華‧波斯特（George Edward Post, 1838—1909）1885年8月2日的一封信中，記錄了他與大英博物館（British Museum）的化石專家和地質學家羅伯特‧艾瑟瑞吉博士（Dr. Robert Etheridge, 1819—1903）的一段談話：
「我很想聽聽一位一流的科學家──也許擁有世界上最大的總結歸納機會，會對達爾文進化論持何種看法。」「他轉向我，用一種清晰、誠實的目光注視着我的眼睛，回答道：『在這座偉大的博物館裏，沒有一絲關於物種轉變的證據。進化論者的言論十分之九純粹是無稽之談，沒有觀察基礎，也完全沒有事實支持。人們採用一種理論，然後費盡心力拼湊所謂事實來支持它。……不存在化石人（fossil man）這樣的東西。如果你不跟隨他們，人們就會把你視爲傻瓜。但這個博物館充滿了證明他們觀點完全錯誤的證據。』」（ He turned to me with a clear, honest look into my eyes, and replied: 「In all this great Museum there is not a particle of evidence of transmutation of species. Nine-tenths of the talk of Evolutionists is sheer nonsense, not founded on observation, and wholly unsupported by fact. Men adopt a theory and then strain their facts to support it. ……There is no such thing as a fossil man. Men are ready to regard you as a fool if you do not go with them in all their vagaries. But this Museum is full of proofs of the utter falsity of their views.」）¹⁷²
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